NTSB CAROL · Event
Event NYC91FA239
Aircraft involved
Probable cause & findings
FAILURE OF THE FIRST OFFICER (CO-PILOT) TO MAINTAIN CONTROL OF THE AIRCRAFT AFTER BECOMING SPATIALLY DISORIENTED, AND HIS EXCEEDING THE DESIGN STRESS LIMITS OF THE AIRCRAFT. FACTORS RELATED TO THE ACCIDENT WERE: THE LACK OF TWO PILOTS IN THE COCKPIT, DARKNESS, AND INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS (IMC) AT FLIGHT ALTITUDE.
Factual narrative
THE AIRPLANE WAS CRUISING IN NIGHT INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS WHEN IT ENTERED A LEFT TURN AND EXCEEDED THE DESIGN AIRFRAME LIMITS. THE AIRPLANE BROKE UP IN THE DESCENT DUE TO AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND WAS DESTROYED.. THE OUTBOARD WING PANELS HAD FAILED DOWNWARD AND CENTER WING SECTION SEPARATED FROM THE FUSELAGE. THE HORIZONTAL STABILIZER AND ELEVATORS HAD FAILED DOWN AND AFT. THE CAPTAIN WAS FOUND OUT OF THE COCKPIT WITH NO EVIDENCE OF HIM BEING IN THE SEAT AT IMPACT A HUMAN FACTORS STUDY FOUND THE AIRCRAFT'S LAST MINUTE OF FLIGHT MATCHED A PROFILE OF A PILOT EXPERIENCING SPATIAL DISORIENTATION. Source: NTSB Aviation Accident Database (Pre-2008 Archive) Retrieved: 2026-02-12
Verbatim from NTSB's published report. Source file
NTSB_1991_NYC91FA239.txt.
Findings + structured fields enriched from FAA avall.mdb.
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Related research
What the literature says.
Academic papers and agency reports matching this event's aircraft type or causal vocabulary (spatial disorientation, imc, human factors). Sourced from NASA NTRS, NTSB Safety Studies, FAA CAMI, AOPA Air Safety Institute, Embry-Riddle Scholarly Commons, arXiv, and the Semantic Scholar academic graph.
- AOPA Air Safety Institute 2022 · Safety advisor
Safety Advisor: Spatial Disorientation
Safety advisor on the perceptual illusions that cause spatial disorientation: the leans, graveyard spiral, somatogravic and somatogyral illusions, false horizon, and Coriolis.
- Embry-Riddle Scholarly Commons 2025 · Journal article (IJAAA)
Design, Implementation, and Testing of Spatial Disorientation Scenarios in a Modified Hexapod Motion Simulator
Abstract Investigations into aviation accidents aim to identify root causes and enhance safety. Despite advancements in safety measures, technology, and education, general aviation accident rates rema…
- Embry-Riddle Scholarly Commons 2024 · Conference paper
A Comparative Study of eVTOL Inceptor Variations and Lessons Learned Through Human Factors Research
Electric vertical take-off and lift (eVTOLs) aircraft are dominating the future of Urban Air Mobility (UAM). These aircraft introduce the need for pilots to learn how to operate an aircraft that can b…
- Embry-Riddle Scholarly Commons 2024 · Conference paper
Up in the Air: A Human Factors Approach to Enhancing eVTOL Passenger Experience
Although electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) vehicles are an emerging mode of transportation, current research indicates that the general public may be unwilling to ride in them due to unfa…
- Embry-Riddle Scholarly Commons 2024 · Journal article (JAAER)
Human-AI Teams in Aviation: Considerations from Human Factors and Team Science
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has transformed the way human-computer interaction (HCI) teams can collaborate and coordinate in various domains, including aviation and crew resource management (CRM).
- Embry-Riddle Scholarly Commons 2023 · Faculty research project
Human Factors Awareness Training for FAA Aviation Safety Specialists Within Aircraft Certification and FAA Flight Standards
In this project, which is funded by the FAA, Embry-Riddle and Kent University will develop training for individuals within the FAA’s Aviation Safety Flight Standards Service who have expertise and job…
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